Non-planar inorganic optoelectronic devices

ABSTRACT

A device includes a three-dimensionally curved substrate, a patterned metal layer disposed on the curved substrate, and an array of optoelectronic devices, each optoelectronic device including an optoelectronic structure supported by the curved substrate. Each optoelectronic structure includes an inorganic semiconductor stack. The device further includes a set of contact stripes extending across the curved substrate, each optoelectronic structure being coupled to a respective contact stripe of the set of contact stripes. The array of optoelectronic devices is secured to the curved substrate via a bond between the patterned metal layer and the set of contact stripes.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of the U.S. non-provisional applicationentitled “Non-Planar Inorganic Optoelectronic Devices,” filed Jun. 28,2012, and assigned Ser. No. 13/536,003, which, in turn, claimed thebenefit of U.S. provisional application entitled “Non-Planar InorganicOptoelectronic Devices,” filed Jun. 28, 2011, and assigned Ser. No.61/502,226, the entire disclosures of which are hereby expresslyincorporated by reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under Contract No.W15P7T-08-C-P409 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research ProjectsAgency (DARPA) of the Department of Defense (Army). The government hascertain rights in the invention.

JOINT RESEARCH AGREEMENT

The claimed invention was made by, on behalf of, or in connection withone or more of the following parties to a joint university-corporationresearch agreement: the Regents of the University of Michigan, PrincetonUniversity, the University of Southern California, and Universal DisplayCorporation. The agreement was in effect on and before the date theclaimed invention was made, and the claimed invention was made as aresult of activities undertaken within the scope of the agreement.

BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE

Field of the Disclosure

The disclosure relates to optoelectronic devices.

Brief Description of Related Technology

Current imaging systems require heavy and expensive compound lenses toproject an object onto a flat focal plane array. Modern camera systemsemploy multiple, high f/number lens elements to create a distortion-freeimage on a flat focal or film plane.

In contrast, biological systems employ a hemispherical image plane,thereby simplifying the imaging optics. The approximately sphericalhuman eye provides a nearly ideal imaging system. It is both compact andsimple, with a wide field of view free of image distortion and a lowf/number.

Creating an imaging system that mimics the form and function of the eyeinvolves fabricating a focal plane onto a nearly spherical surface thatmatches the curvature of a single lens element. Fabrication of suchfocal planes presents the challenge of creating a high density ofmonolithically integrated photodetectors on a three-dimensionally curvedsurface.

One approach to fabricating photodetectors on curved surfaces uses anorganic focal plane array (FPA) and a preformed plastic hemisphere. SeeXu et al., “Direct transfer patterning on three-dimensionally deformedsurfaces at micrometer resolutions and its application to hemisphericalfocal point detector arrays,” Organic Electronics, vol. 9, pp. 1122-1127(2008). The organic FPA in Xu includes organic double heterojunctionphotodetector structures having a copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) donorlayer, a C₆₀ acceptor layer, and a bathocuproine (BCP) exciton blockinglayer. These organic materials are well suited for deposition onto ahemispherical substrate, but unfortunately present other fabricationchallenges and performance limitations.

SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

In accordance with one aspect of the disclosure, a method of fabricatingan optoelectronic device includes creating an optoelectronic structureon a first substrate. The optoelectronic structure includes a releaselayer and a plurality of inorganic semiconductor layers supported by therelease layer. The inorganic semiconductor layers are active inoperation of the optoelectronic device. The method further includesattaching permanently the plurality of inorganic semiconductor layers toa second substrate, the second substrate being flexible, releasing theplurality of inorganic semiconductor layers from the first substrateafter the attaching step, and deforming the second substrate to anon-planar configuration.

In accordance with another aspect of the disclosure, a method offabricating an optoelectronic device includes creating an optoelectronicstructure on a first substrate. The optoelectronic structure includes arelease layer and a plurality of inorganic semiconductor layerssupported by the release layer, the plurality of inorganic semiconductorlayers being configured to be active in operation of the optoelectronicdevice. The method further includes depositing a first metal contact onthe optoelectronic structure, depositing a second metal contact on asecond substrate, the second substrate being flexible, attaching thefirst and second substrates via a cold weld bond between the first andsecond metal contacts, releasing the plurality of inorganicsemiconductor layers from the first substrate, and deforming the secondsubstrate to a non-planar configuration.

In accordance with yet another aspect of the disclosure, a deviceincludes a three-dimensionally curved substrate, a patterned metal layerdisposed on the three-dimensionally curved substrate, and an array ofoptoelectronic devices. Each optoelectronic device includes anoptoelectronic structure supported by the three-dimensionally curvedsubstrate. Each optoelectronic structure includes an inorganicsemiconductor stack. The device further includes a set of contactstripes extending across the curved substrate, each optoelectronicstructure being coupled to a respective contact stripe of the set ofcontact stripes. The array of optoelectronic devices is secured to thecurved substrate via a bond between the patterned metal layer and theset of contact stripes.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIGURES

FIG. 1 is a flow diagram of an exemplary method of fabricating aphotodetector on a three-dimensionally curved substrate in accordancewith one embodiment and one or more aspects of the disclosure.

FIG. 2 is a schematic, sectional representation of an exemplaryepitaxial photodetector structure created during implementation of thefabrication method of FIG. 1.

FIGS. 3A and 3B depict respective schematic, sectional views of a coldweld bonding step of the fabrication method of FIG. 1 involving a firststamp assembly and the epitaxial photodetector structure of FIG. 2.

FIGS. 4A and 4B depict respective schematic, sectional views of theepitaxial photodetector structure of FIG. 1 after a substrate has beenremoved via an etching step of the fabrication method of FIG. 1.

FIGS. 5A and 5B depict respective schematic, sectional views of theepitaxial photodetector structure of FIG. 1 after deposition andpatterning of cathode (or n-metal) stripes of the fabrication method ofFIG. 1, thereby forming a second stamp assembly in accordance with oneembodiment.

FIGS. 6A and 6B depict respective schematic, sectional views of theepitaxial photodetector structure and stamp assembly of FIG. 5 after anetch step of the fabrication method of FIG. 1 in which inorganicsemiconductor detector layers of the structure are patterned.

FIGS. 7A and 7B depict respective schematic, sectional views of bondingand stamp lift-off steps of the fabrication method of FIG. 1 in whichthe stamp assembly of FIG. 5 is attached to a flexible substrate via acold weld bond between the cathode stripes and a strike layer on theflexible substrate in accordance with one embodiment.

FIGS. 8A and 8B depict respective schematic, sectional views of aflexible detector structure resulting from the fabrication steps of FIG.7 and after windows are etched in an anode (or p-metal) contact layer inaccordance with the fabrication method of FIG. 1.

FIGS. 9A and 9B depict respective schematic, sectional views of theflexible detector structure of FIG. 8 after the inorganic semiconductordetector layers are patterned into islands or mesas via an etching stepof the fabrication method of FIG. 1.

FIG. 10A depicts a schematic, perspective view of an exemplary devicefabricated as shown in FIGS. 1-9 to have a photodetector array on aflexible substrate.

FIG. 10B depicts a schematic, sectional view of the exemplary device ofFIG. 10A after deformation of the device into a hemispherical or otherthree-dimensionally contoured shape.

FIGS. 11 and 12 are flow diagrams with corresponding schematic,sectional views of another exemplary method of fabricating aphotodetector on a three-dimensionally curved substrate in accordancewith one embodiment and one or more aspects of the disclosure.

FIG. 13 is a schematic plan view of an another exemplary photodetectorarray having both anode and cathode contact stripes on a single side andfabricated in accordance with yet another embodiment.

FIGS. 14 and 15 are flow diagrams with corresponding schematic,sectional views of an exemplary method of fabricating athree-dimensionally shaped device having anode and cathode contacts onthe same side of a flexible substrate in accordance with one embodiment.

FIG. 16 depicts a schematic, sectional view of an exemplary active pixeldevice in which an epitaxial photodetector structure fabricated via themethod of FIGS. 14 and 15 is connected to a pair of high electronmobility transistors (HEMTs) via an anode contact interconnect inaccordance with one embodiment.

FIG. 17 depicts a schematic, sectional view of the exemplary activepixel device of FIG. 16 before attachment to a plastic substrate via acold weld bond and removal of the InP substrate via an etching step.

FIG. 18A depicts a schematic, perspective view of an exemplary array ofthe exemplary active pixel devices of FIGS. 16 and 17 on a flexiblesubstrate.

FIG. 18B depicts a schematic, sectional view of the exemplary device ofFIG. 18A after deformation of the plastic substrate to deform the arrayinto a hemispherical or other three-dimensionally contoured shape.

FIG. 19 is a schematic circuit diagram of an exemplary three transistorcircuit of the active pixel device of FIGS. 16-18.

FIG. 20 depicts an exemplary pixel layout of the active pixel device ofFIGS. 16-18.

FIGS. 21 and 22 are flow diagrams with corresponding schematic,sectional views of an exemplary method of fabricating an active pixeldevice in accordance with one embodiment.

FIG. 23 depicts alternative process flows for transfer of a pixel arrayto a flexible substrate for deformation of the pixel array into athree-dimensionally contoured shape.

FIG. 24 depicts schematic and photographic representations of anultrathin-film InP Schottky-type solar cell bonded to a flexible plasticsubstrate via cold-welding to withstand either compressive or tensilestrain by bending over radii of 1.0 cm or greater without degradation.

FIGS. 25A-25C are graphical plots of simulated solar illumination (1sun, AM1.5G) of an exemplary ITO/InP thin film solar cell fabricated inaccordance with one embodiment relative to a control solar cell, thegraphical plots depicting (i) current density and voltagecharacteristics, (ii) external quantum efficiency (EQE) as a function ofwavelength, and (iii) short circuit current (Jsc) and power conversionefficiency (η_(p)) of the thin film ITO/InP solar cell after either acompressive (bending inward) stress test or a tensile (bending outward)stress test.

FIGS. 26-28 depict exemplary process flow steps, substrate layouts, anddevice structures in accordance with alternative embodiments.

FIGS. 29A-29C depict schematic, sectional views of a technique formanaging strain in bus lines in accordance with one embodiment.

FIG. 30 depicts a schematic, plan view of another technique for managingstrain in bus lines in accordance with one embodiment.

While the disclosed devices and methods are susceptible of embodimentsin various forms, there are illustrated in the drawing (and willhereafter be described) specific embodiments of the invention, with theunderstanding that the disclosure is intended to be illustrative, and isnot intended to limit the invention to the specific embodimentsdescribed and illustrated herein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DISCLOSURE

Non-planar inorganic optoelectronic devices and processes forfabricating such devices on three-dimensionally contoured or deformedsubstrates are described. Photodetector arrays and other optoelectronicdevices may be fabricated with inorganic semiconductor components andthree-dimensionally contoured substrates. The disclosed devices andmethods address the challenges of fabricating camera and otheroptoelectronic systems with an array of inorganic semiconductorphotodetector on hemispherical or three-dimensionally curved substrates.The disclosed methods may thus be implemented to fabricate deviceshaving a high density of high-performance semiconductor devices disposedon curved surfaces without breaks in detector layers or interconnects orother detrimental strains.

The disclosed fabrication methods generally include the creation of aphotodetector structure on a wafer (or other substrate) by standardsemiconductor processes. The photodetector structure includes inorganicsemiconductor layers involved in the fabrication and operation of thedesired devices. The inorganic semiconductor layers are disposed on topof, or are otherwise supported by, a release layer (e.g., an etch stoplayer or a sacrificial etch layer) used to release the devices from thewafer (or other substrate). The method may further include the steps ofdepositing a metal contact on the detector structure and on a flexiblesubstrate, and attaching the two substrates together via a cold weldbond. Such permanent attachment of the two substrates may alternativelyinvolve an adhesive attachment in which non-metal materials are used.The devices may be bonded to a final flexible (or deformable) substrate,or are bonded to an intermediate flexible (or deformable) stamp in orderto subsequently bond the devices to a final flexible (or deformable)substrate. In either case, after the first bonding step, the devices arereleased from the wafer (or other substrate) to become flexible. Therelease may be achieved via mechanical, chemical, or other techniques.

The disclosed methods may be implemented to fabricate a hemisphericalfocal plane array (FPA) having one or more inorganic semiconductorlayers, despite the challenge of processing such brittle materials alonga hemispherical contour. Although described and shown in connection withhemispherical contours, the disclosed methods and devices are notlimited to hemispherical shapes. Indeed, the disclosed methods are wellsuited for the fabrication of devices having a variety ofthree-dimensional shapes. With the flexibility of the disclosedoptoelectronic devices, the disclosed devices may have anythree-dimensional contour.

In accordance with some aspects of the disclosure, the disclosed methodsincorporate one or more stamping procedures during the fabricationprocess flow. The stamping procedures may be used to transfer anelectrode or interconnect from a stamp assembly to a photodetectorstructure and/or to transfer the photodetector structure from onesubstrate to another. In some cases, the transfer operation may be usedto develop (e.g., metallize) both sides of the photodetector structure.The photodetector structures are also transferred in the disclosedmethods via a stamping procedure to a flexible substrate to enablethree-dimensional deformation or shaping. Further details regardingstamping procedures for use in transfer patterning of organic devicesare set forth in Xu et al., “Direct transfer patterning onthree-dimensionally deformed services at micrometer resolutions and itsapplication to hemispherical focal point detector arrays,” OrganicElectronics, vol. 9, pp. 1122-1127 (2008), and U.S. Patent PublicationsNos. 2008/0202673, 2009/0020910, 2010/0080914, the entire disclosures ofwhich are hereby incorporated by reference.

Although described below in connection with photodetector-based devices(e.g., active pixels), arrays of such photodetector-based devices (e.g.,active pixel arrays), and photodetector structures, multiple aspects ofthe disclosure are not limited to such devices, arrays, and structures.For example, the disclosed methods may be applied to the fabrication ofother optoelectronic devices, such as light emitting diode (LED)devices, semiconductor laser devices, and circuits including variouscombinations of such devices and/or other electronic devices, such astransistor devices.

Although described below in connection with epitaxial structures, thedisclosed optoelectronic devices may be fabricated with differentsubstrate types. For example, the optoelectronic devices may includephotodetector structures created with a silicon-on-insulator (SOI)substrate. In those cases, the buried silicon dioxide (SiO2) or otherinsulator layer may serve as a selective etch layer (e.g., an etch stopor sacrificial layer). The disclosed fabrication methods may then relyon implant and diffusion doping steps.

With reference now to the drawing figures, FIG. 1 shows an exemplaryprocess flow in accordance with one embodiment of the disclosed methodsfor fabricating an optoelectronic device (e.g., a photodetector or focalplane array of photodetectors) having an inorganic semiconductordetector and a three-dimensionally contoured substrate. Cross-sectionsof a number of the intermediate structures fabricated during the processflow are shown in FIGS. 2-10A. The resulting optoelectronic device isshown in FIG. 10B.

The process flow begins with the creation in a step 100 of an epitaxialphotodetector structure (or stack) on a sacrificial semiconductorsubstrate (“the growth substrate”) 102, as shown in FIG. 2. In thisexample, the epitaxial photodetector stack is configured as ap-type/intrinsic/n-type (PIN) InGaAs detector stack. The stack includesan intrinsic buffer layer 104 disposed on the growth substrate 102. Theintrinsic buffer layer 104 may be an InP layer having a thickness ofabout 0.2 μm. An intrinsic etch stop layer 106 may be grown on theintrinsic buffer layer 104. The intrinsic etch stop layer 106 may be anInGaAs layer having a thickness of about 0.2 μm. An n-type InP layer 108may be grown on the intrinsic etch stop layer 106. The n-type InP layer108 may have a thickness of about 0.3 μm and a dopant concentrationlevel in a range from about 10¹⁸ to about 10¹⁹. An intrinsic InGaAsabsorption layer 110 may be grown on the n-type InP layer 108. Theintrinsic InGaAs absorption layer 110 may have a thickness of about 1.5μm. A p-type InGaAs layer 112 may be grown on the intrinsic InGaAsabsorption layer 110. The p-type InGaAs layer 112 may have a thicknessof about 0.3 μm and a dopant concentration level of about 10¹⁸.

The configuration, materials, and other characteristics of theabove-described photodetector stack may vary. For example, theabove-referenced intrinsic layers of the epitaxial photodetector stackmay be undoped or not intentionally doped. The dopant concentrationlevels of the doped layers of the stack may vary. The thicknesses of thelayers may vary as well. The layers of the photodetector stack may bebased on other materials systems, such as Si in a SOI format in whichthe buried insulator acts as a release layer as described below. One ormore layers of the photodetector stack thus need not be epitaxiallayers, any may instead be configured via diffusion or implantationdoping, oxidation, etching, passivation, and/or other processingtechniques (e.g., standard Si processing techniques). The materialssystem may alternatively be a GaAs system, in which, for instance, AlAsis used as a release layer. The materials system may also be based on anumber of other Group III-V, Group II-VI, or metal-oxide basedsemiconductors. As described below (see, e.g., FIG. 16), thephotodetector structure may be combined with one or more components ordevices (e.g., transistor and other active devices) to for an activepixel, in which case the layers of the photodetector and other devicesmay be incorporated into the epitaxial stack at the growth phase.

The configuration of the epitaxial photodetector stack may vary. Forexample, one or more additional etch stop and buffer layers may beincorporated into the stack. As described below, the epitaxial structuremay include additional layers for other active devices, such astransistors, for control of the photodetector at the pixel level.

The materials of the epitaxial photodetector stack may vary from the InPand InGaAs layers shown. For example, the substrate 102 may include oneor more Group III-V semiconductor epitaxial materials (e.g., GaAs, GaSb,InP, AlAs, etc., including any of the ternary, quaternary, andquinternary combinations thereof). The epitaxial layers are not limitedto Group III-V semiconductors, as the epitaxial structure may includeone or more Group II-VI semiconductor layers (e.g., CdTe, CdSe, etc.,including any of the ternary, quaternary, and quinternary combinationsthereof).

With reference to FIGS. 3A and 3B, the exemplary process flow alsoincludes the formation of a first stamp assembly 114 in a step 116(FIG. 1) having anode (or p-metal) contact lines or stripes 118 disposedthereon. In this example, the anode contact stripes 118 are arranged inrows (or columns) as shown in FIG. 3A to run as interconnects betweenadjacent photodetectors in an array. In this example, the anode contactstripes 118 include gold (Au). Alternative or additional materials maybe used. The anode contact stripes 118 may be disposed upon an adhesionreduction or separation layer 120 to facilitate the eventual separationof the anode contact stripes 118 from a sacrificial substrate 122 of thestamp assembly 114. The adhesion reduction layer 120 may include one ormore of, for example, fluorocarbons (e.g., Teflon), silicon dioxide,photoresist, or other materials. The sacrificial substrate 122 of thestamp assembly 114 may be a silicon wafer or be formed of a desiredsemiconductor or other handling material, such as poly-dimethyl-siloxane(PDMS). As described and shown herein, the use of the stamp assembly 114enables the subsequent transfer of the epitaxial photodetector stack toa flexible substrate in an orientation that corresponds with theorientation of the devices on the original wafer, or growth substrate102. In this way, the bottom of the device on the growth substrate 102corresponds with the bottom of the device once transferred to theflexible substrate.

FIGS. 3A and 3B depicts a step 124 (FIG. 1) of the exemplary processflow in which the stamp assembly 114 is attached to the epitaxialphotodetector stack via a cold weld or other bond. In this example, ap-metal (e.g., Au) strike layer 126 is deposited on the epitaxialphotodetector stack. The strike layer 126 and the anode contact stripes118 are pressed against one another under low temperature, high pressureconditions. Once a suitable bond is formed, the InP growth substrate 102of the original wafer is removed via an etching or lapping procedure ofthe step 124. As shown in FIG. 4, removal of the bulk of the InP growthsubstrate 102 leaves the epitaxial photodetector stack disposed on thesacrificial substrate 122 of the stamp assembly 114. One or morenon-active layers of the epitaxial photodetector stack may also beremoved in the step 124. In this example, the buffer and etch stoplayers are removed as shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B, leaving only the PINlayers of the epitaxial photodetector stack on the stamp assembly 114.

FIGS. 5A and 5B show a step 128 (FIG. 1) in which n-metal cathodecontact stripes 130 are deposited on the detector stack. In thisexample, the n-metal cathode stripes 130 are deposited on the n-type InPlayer 108. The deposition of the n-metal cathode stripes 130 establishesa second stamp assembly. The step 128 may include the deposition of oneor more metal layers. For example, the metal layer(s) for the n-metalcathode contact stripes 130 may include any one or more of Ni, Ge, Ti,Au, Pt, Cr, Zn, W, etc. The metal layer(s) is then patterned via analignment step into the n-metal cathode contact stripes 130. The n-metalcathode contact stripes 130 may be arranged as columns (or rows) asshown. In this example, the n-metal cathode contact stripes 130 areconfigured as columns oriented perpendicularly relative to the rows ofthe anode contact stripes 118 described above.

FIGS. 6A and 6B show the patterning of the PIN layers of the detectorstack via an etch step 132 (FIG. 1) that uses the cathode contactstripes 130 as a mask. The InGaAs and InP layers 108, 110, 112 of thedetector stack may be etched between the cathode contact stripes 130 viaa dry etch (e.g., reactive ion etch) process relying on, for instance,methane or Boron trichloride (BCl₃).

The resulting stamp assembly is then permanently attached to a flexiblesubstrate 134 as shown in FIGS. 7A and 7B via another cold weld bondstep 136 (FIG. 1). To this end, the flexible substrate 134 has a metalstrike layer 136 disposed thereon. In this case, the strike layer 136includes an arrangement of n-metal (or other metal) islands configuredto support the detector stack above the flexible substrate 134 withoutshorting out the cathode contact stripes 130 to one another. Each islandof the strike layer 136 may include one or more metal layers. In oneexample, the islands of the strike layer 136 includes a gold (Au) layerhaving an approximate thickness of 50 Å of Au for cold welding, andfurther includes a thin adhesion layer of Cr, Ti, or some combinationthereof having an approximate thickness of 50 Å. Upon attachment to theflexible substrate 134, the sacrificial substrate 122 of the stampassembly is lifted off or otherwise released to complete the substratetransfer. To that end, the adhesion reduction layer 120 of thesacrificial substrate 122 may include Teflon, SiO₂, photoresist, orother material(s) to establish an adhesion strength lower than theadhesion between the strike layer 136 and the flexible substrate 134 toensure that separation from the sacrificial substrate 122 occurs. Insome examples, the release of the sacrificial substrate 122 involvesimplementing an epitaxial lift-off procedure.

The construction, configuration, materials, and other characteristics ofthe flexible substrate 122 may vary. For example, further layers may beincorporated into the flexible substrate 122 in addition to the layersshown. The flexible substrate 122 may include a plastically deformablesubstrate made of a variety of different plastic materials, including,for instance, Kapton, PDMS, PET, PETg, FEP, PFA, etc.

FIG. 8 shows an anode (p-metal) etch step 138 (FIG. 1) in which windows140 are formed in the anode contact stripes 118 via an alignmentprocedure directed to establishing the position of each detector. Theresulting windows 140 and the underlying detector pixels are also shownin FIG. 10A.

Turning to FIGS. 9A and 9B, an etch step 142 (FIG. 1) may then beimplemented to remove the strike layer 136 (FIG. 8A) that remainsdisposed upon the detector stack between the anode contact stripes(e.g., rows) 118. The etch step 142 may include a dry etch step using,for example, Argon plasma. The ohmic contact layer 112 of the detectorstack is thereby exposed, allowing a further etch procedure of the step142 using, for example, methane or BCl₃, to pattern the detector stackinto islands or mesas 144 as shown. The anode contact stripes 118 areused as a mask such that the InGaAs and InP layers 108, 110, 112 of themesas 144 are left only at each overlap of the column and row contactstrips 118, 130, as best shown in FIG. 10A. This may involve or includepatterning, for instance, a photoresist layer over the windows(described below) so that one or more epitaxial layers are not etchedthrough the window. Alternatively, the metal etch to define the windowmay be performed after etching to form the mesas 144, such that theanode stripe alone may be used to mask the mesas.

The fabrication method may vary from the example described above. Forexample, in some embodiments, the strike layer 136 on the flexiblesubstrate 134 is not pre-patterned into islands (as shown in FIGS. 7Aand 7B). In such cases, another etch step (e.g., Argon plasma) may beperformed to isolate the islands 144 of the detector stacks by removingthe strike layer 136 from the flexible substrate 134 while using theislands 144 as a mask.

The order of the steps of the above-described fabrication methods mayvary. For example, the detector stacks may be patterned into islands ormesas at a different stage in the fabrication process flow. For example,using an alignment step, individual photodetector mesas may be formedbefore the deposition of the anode contact layers. Reordering theprocess flow steps in this optional manner may significantly increasestrain tolerance (or absorption). Further details regarding possiblemethods or designs for managing strain are set forth in connection withFIGS. 29A-29C and 30.

A number of additional process steps or procedures may be incorporatedinto the above-described fabrication method. For example, the processflow may also include a passivation step 146 (FIG. 1) in which sidewallsof the above-described structures (photodetector stacks, contactstripes, etc.) are coated with a passivation layer, such as silicondioxide (SiO₂), silicon nitride (Si₃N₄) or polyimide. Such sidewallpassivation may help avoid spurious contact between layers or componentsafter deformation of the flexible substrate 134 to the desired shape forthe array of photodetectors. The process flow may include any number ofpost-transfer or post-attachment steps (e.g., after the devicestructures are attached to the flexible substrate) in which one or morefeatures of the disclosed devices are created or fabricated. Suchpost-attachment fabrication may be useful for creating interconnects orother features on a backside of the photodetector or other device stackthat was inaccessible until after the removal of the sacrificialsubstrate.

FIGS. 10A and 10B depict one example of a deformation step 148 (FIG. 1)in which the flexible substrate 134 is deformed into a hemispherical orother three-dimensional contour. The deformation may rely on asemi-rigid plastic material (e.g., Kapton®, PET, PETg, FEP, PFA, etc.)for the flexible substrate 134 that, upon heating, becomes more pliableas its glass transition temperature is approached. A vacuum mold orchuck or other apparatus (e.g., one providing positive pressure) may beused to shape the flexible substrate 134 as desired. In some examples,the vacuum mold has a hemispherical recess. Cooling the structure thenresults in the plastic material of the flexible substrate 134 retainingthe desired shape.

Establishing the desired contour or shape of the optoelectronic devicemay involve a variety of other setting or other fixing operations. Forexample, rather than the aforementioned plastic deformation, aresiliently or otherwise flexible substrate is instead temporarilydeformed to match the shape of a lens or other system component. Theoptoelectronic device shown in FIG. 10B may then be mounted on or in thelens. In such cases, the flexible substrate 134 may be a PDMS or otherelastic stamp.

Deformation of the optoelectronic device as shown in FIG. 10B maysubject components of the device to strain. Much, if not all, of thestrain resulting from the deformation may be generally handled by theinterconnects running between the islands 144, or detector stacks,sparing the islands 144 from damage. One or more aspects of theoptoelectronic device may lead to the deformation strain stretching theinterconnect rather than pixel structures. For example, the n-metalstructures disposed on the flexible substrate 134 may slip along theflexible substrate. With such slippage, the anode (column) and cathode(row) contact stripes 118, 130 are thus subjected to the deformationstrain instead of the islands 144 of the detector stacks. The islands144 may be configured to facilitate the shear slippage on the surface ofthe flexible substrate 134. In one example, each island 144 includes anadhesion reduction layer to allow such shear slip. The adhesionreduction layer may be interposed between the n-metal layer and thesubstrate to allow greater shear slip, which may, in turn, allow ahigher density of photodetector devices to maximize the fill factor.

The largely one-dimensional nature of the anode and cathode contactstripes 118, 130 may also prevent the deformation from causing damage.Because the contact stripes 118, 130 are shaped as thin strips orstripes, the interconnects absorb the deformation strain withoutwrinkling or breakage. The anode and cathode contact stripes 118, 130may fall within a broad thickness range, e.g., from approximately 50 nmto approximately 1 μm.

To the extent that the detector stacks experience any strain from thedeformation step, the thin, epitaxial nature of each stack may providesome flexibility and, thus, prevent performance-inhibiting damage. Forexample, thin InP solar cells transferred to the plastic substrate 134may exhibit such flexibility.

A number of alternative process flows for fabrication of detector arrayson three-dimensionally curved substrates are now described. Some of theprocess flows are directed to alternative device configurations andstructures.

FIGS. 11 and 12 depict another exemplary process flow for a method offabricating hemispherical and other three-dimensionally shapedphotodetector arrays. In this case, the cathode contacts are patternedwhile the anode contacts are exposed, in contrast to the above-describedexample. While this approach calls for more strict alignment tolerances,the nature of the anode contacts may lead to the potential for increaseddeformation tolerance and further strain resistance.

With reference now to FIG. 11, the method may begin with the creation ina step 200 of an epitaxial photodetector structure 202 on asemiconductor substrate 204, such as an InP substrate. The layers of theepitaxial photodetector structure 202 are then patterned in a step 206.Thus, this process flow differs from the process flow of theabove-described method in that epitaxial inorganic photodetector mesasor islands 208 are defined initially. For example, InGaAs detectorstructures may be isolated before any deposition or patterning ofcontact layers. The layers and other characteristics of the epitaxialinorganic photodetector mesas 208 may be similar to the mesas in theexample described above. For example, the structure may define a PINdetector mounted on an InP substrate having one or more etch stop orlift-off layers.

Next, in a step 210, sidewalls of the mesas 208 are passivated with oneor more passivation layers 212. A variety of dielectric materials may beused to coat the sidewalls, including, for instance, one or more of theabove-referenced passivation materials. The sidewall passivationinsulate the detector layers of the mesas 208 from an anode contactstripe 214 to be deposited next in a step 216. In this example, eachanode contact stripe 214 is configured as a row having a respectivewindow 218 at each detector location as shown.

A bonding step 220 may then be implemented in which the array isattached to a first stamp assembly 222. and the InP substrate is removedvia an etching step. The stamping procedure may be followed by asubstrate etch step 224. In this way, the detector structures aretransferred from the InP substrate 204 to the stamp assembly. The stampassembly may include a substrate 226, an adhesion reduction layer 228(e.g., Teflon), and a metal strike layer 230 (e.g., Au) as describedabove.

The process flow continues as shown in FIG. 12 with a step 232 in whichcathode contact stripes 234 are deposited and patterned. The patterningconfigures the cathode contact stripes 234 as columns. Each cathodecontact stripe 234 may be deposited and configured as described above.

A strike layer 236 may be defined on a plastic substrate 238 in a step240, which need not be implemented at this point in the process flow.The strike layer 236 may be configured as an array of metal dots asdescribed above.

In step 242, the above-described epitaxial and contact structure isattached to the plastic substrate 238 via a cold-weld bonding procedure.The cold weld bond is formed between the metal dots of the strike layer236 and the cathode contact stripes 234. The step 242 may also includeremoval (e.g., lift-off) of the substrate 226 of the stamp assembly 222.The metal strike layer 230 of the stamp assembly 222 may then be removedvia, e.g., an etch procedure, in a step 244, thereby revealing theindividual anode contact rows of the array. The sectional and plan viewsshown in FIG. 12 in association with the step 244 depict the detectorarray mounted on the plastic substrate 238 after the removal of thesubstrate 226 and the metal strike layer 230. The method may theninclude a deformation step as describe above to configure the array in adesired three-dimensional shape.

The device structure resulting from the fabrication method shown inFIGS. 11 and 12 has anode contacts and interconnects that wrap down thesides of each inorganic semiconductor stack. This configuration differsfrom the flat (pre-deformation) strip-shaped contact layers of theembodiments described and shown above in connection with FIGS. 1-10. Onepotential advantage of having the anode (or other) contact layers followor track the detector stacks is that stress relief mechanisms may beincorporated into the contact layer. The shape and other characteristicsof the stress relief mechanisms may vary, insofar as the patterning andformation of the detector mesas is already complete. In one example, theanode contact layer has a pre-deformation profile with rounded or softcorners (e.g., an S-shaped pre-deformation profile) as the contactextends along the row (or column). An S-shaped profile differs from astraight or rectilinear profile in its capability to absorb stressduring deformation. For example, an S-shaped interconnect may act as astress-absorbing spring. The patterning of the anode contact layer (orother interconnect) may lead to a variety of different arrangements forstress absorption during deformation. These stress relief techniques maybe done at the top plane of the epitaxial stack (i.e., metal patternedbefore etching mesas), as well as at the bottom plane of the stack(i.e., metal patterned after etching mesas so that metal wraps down thesides of the mesas). Further details and examples of such stress reliefconfigurations are set forth below in connection with FIGS. 29A-29C and30.

FIGS. 13-15 are directed to a process flow for a method of fabricatingthree-dimensionally shaped devices having anode and cathode contacts onthe same side of the detector stack. Each of the above-described processflows leads to anode and cathode contacts disposed on opposite sides ofthe flexible substrate. To position both contacts on the same side, theprocess flow is based on a modified detector layout and a stampingprocedure for direct transfer to a plastic substrate, thereby removingthe first stamp assembly (e.g., the Si stamp) from the process flow.

FIG. 13 shows a four-pixel arrangement for an array 300 ofphotodetectors 302 with cathode interconnects 304 and anodeinterconnects 306 in columns and rows, respectively. The cathodeinterconnects 304 are disposed such that each pixel has a cathodecontact 308 disposed along a lateral side of the pixel structure. Tothat end, each pixel devotes a portion of its surface area toestablishing the cathode contact 308. As shown and described below, eachcathode contact 308 generally involves etching down to an epitaxiallayer to be used as a transport layer that reaches the bottom of thephotodetector. With some of the mesa devoted to the cathode contact 308,the photodetectors of this embodiment may have a smaller size relativeto the photodetectors of the above-described embodiments.

The surface area devoted to the cathode contacts 308 may vary. In theexample shown in FIG. 13, adjacent rows of the photodetector 302 may bespaced from one another by a distance A, which may be about 5 μm toabout 10 μm. Each row may have a width B of about 135 μm. A width C ofeach cathode contact 308 may be about 20 μm. In this example, eachphotodetector 302 is square-shaped, such that each column may have awidth D, the other lateral dimension of each photodetector, sizedsimilarly to the row width B. Spacing E between adjacent columns maythus match the distance A. The dimensions and shape of thephotodetectors 302 and the cathode contacts 308 may vary from theexample shown.

FIG. 14 depicts an exemplary method of fabricating the pixel arrangementof FIG. 13. The method begins with a step 310 in which an epitaxialphotodetector structure 312 is formed on a sacrificial substrate 314. Inthis example, the substrate 314 is an iron doped InP wafer, which may beused in connection with any of the embodiments described herein. As inthe examples described above, the epitaxial photodetector structure 312includes inorganic semiconductor materials. The epitaxial photodetectorstructure 312 may have one or more inorganic semiconductor detectorlayers in common with the above-described examples. The configuration ofthe epitaxial photodetector structure 312 may have other characteristicsor features in common with the above-described examples. For instance,the epitaxial photodetector structure 312 may again be configured as aPIN detector.

In step 316, a cathode contact area 318 is revealed. In this example, anInGaAs absorption layer 320 is patterned and etched down to expose aportion of a lower Ohmic contact layer 322, which may be an epitaxialInP layer configured as shown. In this way, a conductive connection tothe bottom of the photodetector may be established for the cathodeinterconnect stripes.

An etching step 324 may then be implemented for isolation of adjacentphotodetectors in the array. Such isolation may be achieved by etchingthrough and removing the lower Ohmic contact layer 322 in an area 326. Apassivation step 328 may then coat the sidewalls of the photodetectorstructure 312 via, e.g., deposition of a Si_(x)N_(y) or otherpassivation layer 330. As a result, the cathode contact is not shortedto the PIN detector layers.

The cathode contact area 326 is defined and again revealed in a step 332by etching an opening or hole 334 in the passivation layer 330. The step332 includes implementation of a cathode contact reveal photolithographystep in which the opening 334 is formed. A cathode column 336 may bedeposited in a step 338 via, for instance, evaporation of an n-typemetal layer. In one example, the cathode column 336 includes layers ofGe (270 Å), Au (450 Å), Ni (215 Å), and Au (450 Å). The materials andlayer thicknesses may vary.

The fabrication method continues as shown in FIG. 15 with a step 340 inwhich a thick passivation or isolation layer 342 is deposited. An anode(p-type) contact area 344 may then be defined in an anode contact revealstep 346 in which the passivation layer 342 is etched at the top of thephotodetector structure 312. Other portions of the anode interconnectrow, which runs laterally in the sectional view shown, may be defined ina step 348, in which one or more layers are deposited for an anodecontact and interconnect 350. In one example, the anodecontact/interconnect 350 includes layers of Ti (200 Å), Pt (300 Å), andAu (1000 Å). The materials and layer thicknesses may vary. For example,a combination of Zn and Au layers may be used.

The photodetector structure 312 is then bonded to a flexible (ordeformable) substrate, as described above, followed by removal of, orseparation from, the substrate or wafer 314 (FIG. 14) on which thephotodetector structure 312 is initially formed. One exemplary techniquefor implementing these steps is described below and shown in connectionwith FIG. 26.

FIG. 16 depicts a single pixel of an exemplary active pixel imagingarray 360 that may be fabricated via the epitaxial and lithographicprocesses described above in connection with the embodiment of FIGS. 14and 15. The imaging array 360 may include any number of such pixelsrepeated in rows corresponding with the lateral direction of thesectional view, as well as in column transverse to the rows. Each pixelof the imaging array 360 includes a photodetector structure 362 (e.g.,the photodetector structure 312 of FIGS. 14 and 15) epitaxially grown ona semiconductor substrate 364 (e.g., an InP or other substrate). Eachpixel further includes multiple active elements 366 to support theoperation of the active pixel. Anode (row) and cathode (column)contacts/interconnects 368, 370 are disposed on the same side of thephotodetector structure 362 and the substrate 364 as described above,which simplifies the processing of the active elements 366 as well asthe integration of the active elements 366 and the photodetectorstructure 362. In this example, the active devices 366 are configured astwo high electron mobility transistor (HEMT) devices shown in schematicform to depict a simplified arrangement in which the row interconnect368 extends over a passivation layer 372 to couple the anode contact 368of the photodetector structure 362 to a contact (e.g., a drain, sourceor gate electrode) on one or both of the HEMT devices 366. The processflow is compatible with any combination or layout of transistor devicesconnected with the photodetector structure 362 to support a variety ofcircuit arrangements.

FIG. 17 depicts an exemplary stamping procedure in which the activepixel imaging array 360 (and each pixel structure thereof) istransferred from the InP growth substrate 364 onto a flexible (plastic)substrate 374 having a patterned strike layer 376 and an adhesionreduction layer 378. As described above, the patterning of the strikelayer 376 maintains the isolation of the anode contacts and rows 368,while still allowing the strike layer 376 to establish a cold weld bondwith the anode contact interconnects 368 to attach the pixel structureto the flexible substrate 374. As described above, the adhesionreduction layer 378 (e.g., Teflon) may be disposed between the flexiblesubstrate 374 and the metal strike layer 376 to enable a small amount ofslippage during deformation or transfer to a third substrate.

The completed pixel array 360 is shown in FIG. 18 after the stampingprocedure and removal (e.g., etching) of the growth substrate 364 (FIG.17). Both the anode (row) and cathode (column) contacts/interconnects368, 370 are disposed on the same side of the photodetector structure362 and the plastic substrate 374.

FIG. 17 may be representative of an alternative embodiment in which anadhesive material is used to attach the pixel structure to the flexiblestructure 374. The elements 376 may be representative of a discontinuousdistribution of the adhesive material on the plastic substrate 374. Oneor more adhesive materials may be used, including, for instance, variousepoxies or glues, a curable photoresist, silicone, and/or polyimides.The use of such non-conductive materials may simplify the passivation ofthe conductive layers of the device(s). The adhesive material may bedistributed across the flexible substrate 376 in various arrangements orconfigurations. For example, the adhesive material may be spread orotherwise distributed continuously or more continuously than the exampleshown in FIG. 17.

In an alternative to the assembly procedure shown in FIG. 17, thefabrication method includes a process flow in which anode and cathodecontacts are patterned on the photodetector structures while on thegrowth wafer, and in which interconnects and bus lines are deposited andpatterned on the flexible/deformable substrate. The photodetectorstructures and the flexible substrate may then be attached to oneanother using an alignment procedure.

FIGS. 19 and 20 depict exemplary circuit and layout arrangements foreach active pixel of the array. In this example, a column select line orinterconnect 380 is directed to obtaining access to the voltagegenerated by the photodetector structure 362 (schematically representedby a PIN diode) of the pixel. The photodetector structure 362 may beconfigured as an InGaAs photodetector as described above. Duringoperation over an array of pixels, the voltage(s) on a number of rowinterconnects 382 may be evaluated via a selected one of the columns380. Approximately a quarter of a pixel area 384 is taken up by thephotodetector structure 362. Thus, the pixel area 384 of the pixel maybe scaled down. In this example, each pixel includes three transistordevices (e.g., HEMT devices) 386A-386C. The transistor device 386A iscontrolled by a control voltage directed to resetting the photodetectorstructure 362. The transistor device 386B is configured as an amplifier,while the transistor device 386C is configured as a column selectswitch.

Set forth are operational parameters for an exemplary device configuredas shown in FIG. 20 and having an area of 135 μm². After time T_(int),V_(g,dark)=V_(t)+1.6 mV and V_(g,10-bit)=V_(t)+1.6 V, and with—

$I_{dsat} = {\frac{W\;\mu\; C_{ox}}{2L}\left( {V_{G} - V_{t}} \right)^{2}}$where, μ_(n)˜10⁴ cm²/Vs and V_(G)<Q_(max)/C_(ox)=10¹²q/C_(ox), thefollowing current values are achieved: I_(dsat,dark)=0.4 mA,I_(dsat,10-bit)=400 mA, and I_(pinch-off)˜10 nA.

FIGS. 21-22 depict an exemplary process flow that integrates thefabrication of inorganic photodetector and transistor devices to producean active pixel array on a wafer or other substrate, such as the activepixel array described and shown in connection with FIGS. 16-20. Theactive pixel array may then be transferred to a flexible or deformablesubstrate using the processes described above. For ease in illustration,only one of the transistors is depicted. In this case, the resettransistor device 386A of the exemplary circuit of FIGS. 19 and 20 isdepicted alongside the photodetector. The amplifier transistor device386B is not shown, but may be connected to a bottom contact of thephotodetector device 362.

The configuration, structure, materials, and other characteristics ofthe pixels, active elements, or other devices may vary considerably. Forexample, the devices may include passive pixels or active pixels withtwo, three, or four transistors. The configuration of the activeelements may vary. Examples of suitable types of active elements includeHEMT, JFET, MESFET, MOSFET, BJT transistor devices, which may be grownby MBE, LPE, CVD, or CMOS processes. In each of these cases, inorganicdevices may be formed on a wafer and transferred to a flexible ordeformable substrate using (1) cold-welding to bond the devices to theflexible substrate and (2) etch stop layers, where the entire wafer isetched (or even sacrificial etch layers where we only etch the layerreferred to as “etch stop layer” here).

With reference to FIG. 21, an epitaxial structure 400 is formed in astep 402 on a sacrificial (e.g., InP) substrate 404. The epitaxialstructure 400 includes layers dedicated to fabrication of the activeelements (e.g., transistor layers). In this example, the transistorlayers include a gate insulator layer 406, a channel layer 408, and abuffer layers 410. The transistor layers are disposed below thephotodetector layers in this case, although the order may be reversed inother embodiments. In embodiments in which some or all of the transistordevices in the pixel design are HEMT devices, the epitaxial formation ofthe structure 400 may include a dopant implant step implemented as thegate insulator layer 406 is grown. In one example, the implant step mayinclude an Si delta doping step as shown in FIG. 21. The implant stepmay facilitate the introduction of charge carriers (e.g., electrons)into the InGaAs channel layer 408.

After the epitaxial growth of the structure 400, an etch step 412 may beimplemented to define a photodiode structure 414. The etch step 412removes portions of the n+ contact and absorption layers of thephotodetector design (as described above) to define the area in whichthe photodiode structure 414 is disposed. In another etch step 416, ananode contact area 418 is defined adjacent to the photodetectorstructure 414. To this end, a portion of a bottom contact layer 420 isexposed or revealed in a manner similar to that described above in theexample in which the cathode electrode is disposed below the detectorlayer.

An isolation step 422 may then be implemented to define and isolate thephotodiode structure 414 from one or more transistor structures 424 ofthe active pixel device. The isolation step 422 may include etching downto the substrate 404.

In a step 426, the gate insulator layer 406 is patterned. The samephotolithographic pattern may then be used to define one or more channellayer contacts 428 for source and drain regions of the transistorstructure 424 and implant or otherwise introduce (e.g., via diffusion)dopant for the source and drain regions. The exemplary process flow isthus compatible with several ways in which HEMT devices may be formed.Additional p-type doping of the channel contact regions (e.g., to makethe contact regions p+) may be performed to improve transistorperformance. Such additional doping may be done using the samelithography pattern referenced above. These doped regions are depictedafter diffusion into the channel layer after an anneal described below.

The epitaxial structures 414, 426 may then be passivated in a step 430in which one or more passivation layers 432 is deposited. In thisexample, all sidewalls of the structures 414 and 426 are passivated inpreparation for the metallization steps that form both electrodecontacts as well as the row and column interconnects.

With reference now to FIG. 22, the fabrication method continues with astep 434 in which a cathode contact area 436 is revealed via a blanketetch that exposes the top surfaces of both of the structures 414, 426and thus, both the photodiode and transistor devices. A step 438 maythen be implemented in which one or more metal layers 440 are depositedand annealed. The metal layers 440 may be patterned to form contacts forboth devices. The annealing of the metal layers may also be used todrive the dopant to define the source and drain regions of thetransistor device.

In a step 442, one or more interconnects 444 may be deposited betweenthe photodetector and transistor structures 414, 426. The step 442 maydeposit one or more metal layers to form the row, column, and otherinterconnects. At this point, the fabrication of the pixel array iscomplete, and the device is ready for deformation via cold weld bondtransfer to a flexible substrate as described above.

FIG. 23 depicts the steps of two alternative process flows directed tosubstrate transfer and deformation of the pixel array. Both methodsbegin as described above in a step 500 in which a pixel array is formedon a growth substrate, such as an InP wafer. In one of the processflows, the method may proceed with a step 502A in which a cold weld bondis established between the pixel array and a plastic substrate, and inwhich the pixel array is released from the growth wafer. The plasticsubstrate and the pixel array disposed thereon may then be deformed in astep 504A. In some cases, the photodetector structures are disposed onthe inside of the hemispherical (or other) curve. As a result, thephotodetector structures may avoid contact with a vacuum mold or chuckor other device relied upon to perform the deformation. Duringoperation, the light travels through the bottom of the photodetectorstack in this arrangement. As a result, each pixel is accordinglyconfigured such that the photodetector layers are disposed below thetransistor layers to avoid having the transistor layers absorb theincoming light. The deformation may, but need not, rely on relative slipbetween the device structures and the plastic substrate. The deformationmay be implemented with the photodetector structures disposed on eitherthe inside or outside of the hemispherical curve.

The alternative method shown in FIG. 23 involves multiple substratetransfers (e.g., mounts). After the pixel array is formed, a cold weldbond step 502B is performed in which the pixel array is attached to anintermediate stamp assembly having, for instance, a PDMS substrate.After the cold weld bond is formed and the InP wafer is removed, theresulting structure is deformed in a step 504B into a desired contour,which may involve relative slippage between the device structures andthe PDMS substrate. The contour of the intermediate structure may beconfigured to match the contour of a lens or other device on which thedevice structures are mounted. The lens or other device may provide amore secure or permanent fixture for the array, as well as present amechanism for encapsulating or otherwise protecting the other side ofthe array. A transfer step 506B to the lens or other device may, butneed not, include the removal of the PDMS substrate. In either case, themounting (or transfer) reverses or inverts the photodetector structuressuch that the light now passes through the top of the photodetectorsduring operation.

The methods and devices disclosed herein generally rely on one or morestamping procedures for transferring devices to a different substrate.In the examples above, for instance, the wafer on which the epitaxialphotodetector structures are disposed is eventually pressed against aplastic or other flexible substrate with a metal coating or other layerfor transfer thereto. That stamping procedure may not involve thepatterning of a metal or other layer. Indeed, in some cases, thedisclosed methods do not rely on stamping for patterning or depositionof any of the metal layers.

While the above-described examples rely on InGaAs as the detectormaterial, the disclosed methods and devices are not limited to anyparticular inorganic semiconductor. As a result of the above-describedprocess flows and device configurations, the brittleness of the detectormaterial does not present a limiting factor in the material selection.

The above-described process flows may be applied to fabricatehemispherical focal plane arrays (FPAs) and other optoelectronic devicesusing inorganic semiconductors and cold welding for formation onplastic, three-dimensionally deformed or deformable substrates. Theprocess flows are well sited for fabrication of a variety ofthree-dimensional device shapes.

FIG. 24 depicts an example of an ultrathin film, single-crystal InPSchottky-type solar cell mounted on a flexible plastic substrate andotherwise fabricated in accordance with one or more aspects of thedisclosed methods. One or more of the layers of the exemplary solar cellmay be configured in a manner similar to the corresponding layers of theabove-described devices. A lightly p-doped InP cell 510 is grownepitaxially on an InP substrate 512 via gas source molecular beamepitaxy. The InP substrate 512 is removed via selective chemicalwet-etching after the epitaxial layers are cold-welded to a 25 μm thickKapton® sheet 514, followed by the deposition of an indium tin oxide topcontact 516 that forms the Schottky barrier with the InP cell. Duringtesting of the exemplary solar cell, power conversion efficiency under 1sun of 10.2±1.0%, and specific power of 2.0±0.2 kW/kg are achieved. Theexemplary solar cell may tolerate both tensile and compressive stress bybending over a <1 cm radius without damage.

A photograph of the resulting solar cell is also shown in FIG. 24. Thephotograph provides an example of the flexibility of the solar cell onflexible plastic substrate.

In this example, the epitaxial solar cell structure 510 is grown by gassource molecular beam epitaxy on a p-type, Zn-doped (100) InP substrate512. The epitaxial structure 510 includes a 0.375 μm thick, p-type(5×10¹⁶ cm⁻³) InP buffer layer, a 0.25 μm thick, lattice-matchedBe-doped (5×10¹⁶ cm⁻³) p-type In_(0.53)Ga_(0.47)As etch-stop layer, a2.0 μm thick, lightly p-doped (5×10¹⁶ cm⁻³) InP absorption layer, andfinally, a 0.3 μm thick, lattice-matched Be-doped (1×10¹⁹ cm⁻³) p-typeInP ohmic contact layer.

The fabrication of the solar cells starts with electron beam evaporationof the p-metal contact with thickness of 300 Å Pt followed by 300 Å Auon both the top InP contact layer and the 25 μm thick Kapton sheet.After metal deposition, the wafer is mounted metal-side down on theKapton sheet, which may be coated with one or more metal layers (e.g.,Pt/Au). A bond is formed between the two metal surfaces via cold-weldingby applying a pressure of 50 MPa for 60 s using an MTS Alliance RT/100Testing System.

The InP substrate 512 and the subsequent In_(0.53)Ga_(0.47)As etch-stoplayer are then removed using a H₃PO₄:HCl=1:3 solution, followed byH₂SO₄:H₂O₂:H₂O=1:1:10. The etch rates for these solutions are 3 μm/minfor InP and 0.2 μm/min for In_(0.53)Ga_(0.47)As, respectively. Finally,a 150 nm thick indium tin-oxide (ITO) layer is deposited as the Schottkydiode contact 516. The contact has an area of 0.785 mm² defined by ashadow mask. The ITO layer is sputtered at a base pressure of 2×10⁻⁶torr, RF power of 40 W, and deposition rate of 0.2 Å/sec. The sputteredITO film typically has a resistivity of ˜1×10⁻² Ωcm and a transmissioncoefficient of ˜80% to wavelengths in the range of 400 nm<λ<900 nm.

FIGS. 25A-25C are directed to comparing the operational performance ofthe above-described example with a control ITO/InP solar cell. Thecontrol device has a structure similar to the thin-film device and issimilarly fabricated, but without substrate removal. The current density(J) versus voltage (V) characteristics were measured in the dark andunder simulated illumination from an Oriel AM1.5G solar simulator, usingHP4155B semiconductor parameter analyzer. The illumination intensity ofthe solar simulator was calibrated using a National Renewable EnergyLaboratory calibrated silicon reference solar cell. The external quantumefficiency (EQE) measurement was conducted by using a monochromator, anSRS830 lock-in amplifier, and a tungsten lamp. The illumination fromtungsten lamp is calibrated with a National Institute of Standards andTechnology traceable silicon photodetector.

FIGS. 25A-25C show the room temperature J-V characteristics of both thethin-film and control photovoltaic cells under simulated AM1.5G solarspectrum at 1 sun intensity (100 mW/cm²). From the dark J-Vcharacteristics of the thin-film device, the ideality factor andSchottky barrier height of the thin film solar cell are estimated to ben=1.14 and φ_(B)=0.93 eV, respectively, by applying the theoreticalRichardson constant of p-InP. The specific series resistance andspecific shunt resistance of the thin-film device are 5.4 Ωcm² and3.8×108 Ωcm², respectively. The high specific series resistanceoriginates from the nonoptimized ITO contact, and is primarilyresponsible for the low fill factor of the solar cell. The short circuitphotocurrent density (Jsc) for the thin film solar cell is Jsc=30±3mA/cm², while for the control, Jsc=24.9±2.5 mA/cm². Integration of themeasured EQE over the AM1.5 solar spectrum gives Jsc=25±3 and 20±2mA/cm² for the thin-film and control cells, respectively, consistentwith values obtained using simulated solar illumination.

The flexibility of the thin-film solar cells was tested by bending thedevices either inward or outward over cylinders of various radii. Inwardbending applies compressive strain, while outward bending results intensile strain to the InP layer (as shown in the legend inset of FIGS.25A-25C). For each bending radius, the thin film solar cell is stressedfor 30 s, released, and then characterized.

FIG. 25C shows Jsc and η_(p), respectively, following the stress test.Here, η_(p) remains unchanged for inward bending radii >0.5 cm(compressive strain ˜−0.097%), and for an outward bending radius >1.0 cm(tensile strain ˜0.0486%). However, once stressed beyond these values,Jsc shows a decrease, leading to a concomitant reduction in powerconversion efficiency. The stress tolerance of an InP thin film solarcell may be improved by using a thinner plastic sheet as the substrate,or placing the thin film at the neutral stress surface located at thecenter of a sandwich formed by two identically thin sheets of plastic.Also, ITO itself is brittle and subject to cracking during stress. Thecracks may initiate in the ITO and propagate into the InP, or viceversa.

Since the Kapton® has a significantly lower density (˜1.42 g/cm³) thanInP (4.81 g/cm³), the thin-film solar cell is useful for applicationswhere power conversion using lightweight devices is important. Based onthe device structure and the measured power efficiency, the specificpowers of the thin-film and control ITO/InP solar cells are Psp=2.0±0.2and 0.041±0.004 kW/kg, respectively, while CIGS or CdTe thin-film solarcells have reported specific powers of 3.3 and 2.0 kW/kg, respectively.By adopting a thinner plastic substrate and using a higher efficiencysolar cell architecture, over double the specific power may be achieved.

FIG. 26 depicts an alternative configuration of the above-describedflexible or plastic substrates. The alternative configuration does notinclude the above-described island-shaped strike layers distributedacross the flexible substrate for the cold weld bond with the devicestructures. Instead of having such islands, in this embodiment, aplastic or other flexible substrate 520 has one or more metal layers 522pre-patterned in an arrangement that matches or otherwise correspondswith a layout 524 of the device structures. An aligned stamp proceduremay then be implemented to bond desired metal regions on the devicestructures to the flexible substrate 520. This configuration may be usedas an alternative to island strike layers in each of the embodimentsdescribed herein. This configuration may be used to eliminate the chanceof shorting pixels, rows, or columns together without an etch for auniform planar strike layer. In another alternative configuration, thepre-patterned arrangement need not include uniform metal structures,such as the four structures shown in FIG. 26. Instead, the metal layersmay include discontinuities within each cold weld bond area. Forexample, the metal layers may be configured as islands but with a layoutthat matches or otherwise corresponds with the layout of the devicestructures.

FIGS. 27 and 28 depict several additional embodiments with contacts onthe same side of the substrate or photodetector structure. FIG. 27 showsa top contacted photodetector array 530 and a plastic or other flexibleor deformable substrate 532 having contact regions 534, 536 for bondingto, and contacting, the pixels of the array 530. The contact regions534, 536 are provided for each pixel. The contact regions 534, 536 maybe shaped to match or otherwise correspond with the layout of the array530. The contact regions 534, 536 are patterned on the plastic substrate532 before the cold weld bond. Interconnects 538 may be patterned on theplastic substrate 532 as well. The interconnects 538 may be isolatedfrom one another via one or more dielectric layers (e.g., SiN₃,parylene, SiO₂, etc.).

FIG. 28 shows an embodiment in which a target (e.g., flexible) substrate540 has a number of metal elements 542A, 542B configured to facilitatethe cold weld bold with corresponding metal elements 544A, 544B of aphotodetector or other device structure 546 on a sacrificial substrate548. The thicknesses of the metal elements on one or both of thesubstrates 540, 548 may be configured to present a level, flat, or othercomplementary interface for the cold weld bonds. For example, thevertical extent of the metal layers on one or both of the substrates540, 548 may be matched. The thicknesses may be adjusted in other waysto account for the height difference of the device structures 546. Forexample, the vertical extent need not be such that the top surface ofeach contact is at the same level as shown. Instead, the contact levelsmay vary to complement and, thus, accommodate the heights or thicknessesof the contact levels on the other substrate.

An isolation layer 549 may be included to separate the metal elements542A and 542B from one another. Row and column interconnects of thedevice structure 546 may thus remain isolated. Notwithstanding theforegoing, the topology of the target substrate 540 need not be adjustedto match the contacts of the device structure 546. The topologies neednot exactly match, as the target substrate 540 may deform under pressureto allow for height mismatches between the metal layers.

The bus lines and other interconnects patterned on the flexible ordeformable substrate before the transfer of the photodetector or otherdevice structure(s) thereto may vary from the example shown in FIG. 28.The patterning and deposition of such interconnects may include varyinglevels of height matching and one or more passivation layers to supportconnections involving multiple transistor or other devices. More complexinterconnect schemes for various pixel structure may thus beaccommodated.

FIGS. 29A-29C and 30 present alternative methods and designs formanaging strain in bus or other interconnect lines connecting the pixelsformed via the above-described embodiments. Generally speaking, metalinterconnects and bus lines can bend and deform during deformation.However, too much bending and deformation can break the interconnects,the threshold being dependent on, for instance, metal adhesion tosurface, thickness of metal lines, deformation conditions, etc. Allowingthe interconnects to slip on the surface by having poor adhesion tosurface may mitigate breakage.

The alternative methods and designs for mitigating strain shown in FIGS.29A-29C and 30 introduce a number of strain relief sections in theinterconnects. The strain relief sections may be crooked or curved. Thecurves may be oriented vertically (FIGS. 29A-29C) or laterally (FIG. 30)as shown. In FIG. 29A, a number of structures 560 are deposited on asacrificial wafer 562 in an area between photodetector or other devices564. The material(s), shape, and other characteristics of the structures560 may vary. One or more metal layers 566 may then be deposited overthe structures 560, as shown in FIG. 29B. The metal layer 566 may form arow or a column interconnect, for example. The structures 560 may thenbe removed (via, e.g., an etch procedure) as shown in FIG. 29C, therebyleaving a number of arches 568 in a section of the interconnect. Thearches 568 define a vertically crooked path that may provide increaseddeformation tolerance. In the embodiment of FIG. 30, interconnectsinclude one or more serpentine or other angled sections 570 betweendevices. Various combinations of these and other vertical and lateralcurves may be used.

Described above are devices and methods for making devices having anon-planar inorganic electronic device on a conformal or otherwiseflexible substrate in which the device is partially fabricated on asacrificial wafer and the device is removed from the sacrificial waferand transferred to the flexible substrate. The non-planar inorganicelectronic device may be configured as or include a photodetector deviceor other optoelectronic device (e.g., an active pixel array or otherinorganic electronic device, such as a pressure sensor. The discloseddevices may include a single component or a collection of components,such as a single, a collection, or an array of devices, and/or anintegrated circuit with various functionalities. The disclosed devicesmay be configured as a curved focal plane array for imagingapplications. The flexible substrate may include a plastic material,such as Kapton, PET, PETg, or Teflon, or a metal foil. In some cases,the disclosed methods include further processing performed after thetransfer to the flexible or conformal substrate, such as variouscleaning or debris removal steps, passivation, packaging, and/orpatterning and other fabrication of structures disposed on a backside ofthe device not accessible until after the transfer. In some cases, thedevices are transferred to one or more intermediate wafers where furtherprocessing may be performed before the transfer to the flexiblesubstrate. The non-planar inorganic electronic device may be fabricatedon the sacrificial wafer via a variety of fabrication techniques. Thesacrificial wafer may include a rigid substrate. The non-planarinorganic electronic device may be parted or otherwise released from thesacrificial wafer using epitaxial lift-off. A lift-off release layer,such as AlAs or SiO₂ may be used. Alternatively or additionally,non-planar inorganic electronic device may be parted or otherwisereleased the sacrificial wafer using a strain/shear layer.Alternatively, the sacrificial wafer is removed by polishing and wetetching from the back of the wafer. The sacrificial wafer may include asemiconductor material, such as Si, GaAs, or InP, or sapphire or aglass. The transfer may be implemented by using different bond strengthsto select the interface that is parted.

The transfer may be implemented via metal-metal cold-weld bonding. Thecold-weld bond may be formed at an elevated pressure (e.g., aboveatmospheric pressure) and a low temperature (e.g., below the softeningpoint of the flexible substrate).

The metal layer deposited on the flexible or conformal substrate may beunpatterned or patterned, such as patterned into stripes or patternedinto islands. In patterned embodiments, the patterned layer may provideconnections between various points of the device or circuit.Alternatively or additionally, the patterning physically bonds thedevice to the flexible substrate, while maintaining electrical isolationbetween various parts of the circuit.

In some embodiments, fabrication of the interconnects and other aspectsof the electronic device is completed before the transfer to theflexible substrate. Other aspects of the fabrication of the electronicdevice may also be completed before the transfer. In some cases,fabrication of the electronic device is complete before the transfer.

The device may be passivated with one or more insulating layers, andthen coated with an additional metal layer for bonding. The bonding maythen involve attachment to an unpatterned, coated flexible substrate.

In some cases, additional fabrication processing is implemented aftertransfer to the flexible or conformal substrate. For example, theadditional processing may include etching, pattering, deposition ofinsulators, deposition of interconnects, passivation, packaging, and/ordepositing non-traditional layers (e.g., organic semiconductors).

The flexible substrate may be deformed into a desired shapemechanically, thermally, or via other techniques. The deformation mayinvolve a mechanical mold, heat treatment, vacuum suction, and/or strainrelaxation before transfer of the devices to the flexible substrate.Alternatively, the flexible substrate is deformed into the desired shapeinvolving such techniques or equipment after transfer of the devices tothe flexible substrate.

Devices, structures, or material from multiple sacrificial wafers may betransferred to the flexible substrate. The multiple sacrificial wafersmay include different materials and provide different functionality,such as detectors, transistors, and/or read-out electronics. Thedisclosed devices may thus include structures or devices fabricated viadifferent material systems, including, for example, incompatiblematerial systems.

In some embodiments, the disclosed methods include creating aphotodetector structure on a first substrate, in which the photodetectorstructure includes a release layer and a plurality of inorganicsemiconductor layers supported by the release layer, the plurality ofinorganic semiconductor layers being active in operation of theoptoelectronic device. The methods further include depositing a firstmetal contact on the photodetector structure, depositing a second metalcontact on a second substrate, the second substrate being flexible,attaching the first and second substrates via a cold weld bond betweenthe first and second metal contacts, lifting off or otherwise releasingthe first substrate, and deforming the second substrate to a non-planarconfiguration.

In some embodiments, the disclosed devices include a three-dimensionallycurved substrate, a patterned metal layer disposed on the curvedsubstrate and an array of photodetectors, each photodetector including aphotodetector structure supported by the curved substrate. Eachphotodetector structure includes an inorganic semiconductor stack. Thedisclosed devices further include first and second sets of contactstripes extending across the curved substrate, each photodetectorstructure being coupled to a respective contact stripe of the first setof contact stripes and a respective contact stripe of the second set ofcontact stripes. The array of photodetectors is secured to the curvedsubstrate via a bond between the patterned metal layer and one or bothof the first and second sets of contact stripes.

While the present invention has been described with reference tospecific examples, which are intended to be illustrative only and not tobe limiting of the invention, it will be apparent to those of ordinaryskill in the art that changes, additions and/or deletions may be made tothe disclosed embodiments without departing from the spirit and scope ofthe invention.

The foregoing description is given for clearness of understanding only,and no unnecessary limitations should be understood therefrom, asmodifications within the scope of the invention may be apparent to thosehaving ordinary skill in the art.

What is claimed is:
 1. A device comprising: a three-dimensionally curvedsubstrate; a patterned metal layer disposed on the curved substrate; anarray of optoelectronic devices, each optoelectronic device comprisingan optoelectronic structure supported by the curved substrate, whereineach optoelectronic structure comprises an inorganic semiconductorstack; and a set of contact stripes extending across the curvedsubstrate, each optoelectronic structure being coupled to a respectivecontact stripe of the set of contact stripes; wherein the patternedmetal layer is in direct, physical contact with, and configured foradhesion to, the curved substrate; wherein the patterned metal layer isa strike layer of a bond between the patterned metal layer and the setof contact stripes; wherein the array of optoelectronic devices issecured to the curved substrate via the bond between the patterned metallayer and the set of contact stripes; and wherein the patterned metallayer and the set of contact stripes have different patterning.
 2. Thedevice of claim 1, wherein the inorganic semiconductor stack comprises aGroup III-V semiconductor layer.
 3. The device of claim 1, wherein thepatterned metal layer comprises a plurality of islands, each islandhaving a lateral area smaller than a lateral area of each optoelectronicstructure such that adjacent contact stripes are not shorted to oneanother.
 4. The device of claim 1, wherein each contact stripe comprisesa strain relief section.
 5. The device of claim 1, further comprising aplurality of electronic devices supported by the curved substrate,wherein: each optoelectronic device comprises a respective photodetectordevice, and a respective one or more of the plurality of electronicdevices is configured with a respective one of the photodetector devicesas an active pixel of a curved focal plane array.
 6. The device of claim5, wherein the patterned metal layer is configured to provide aconnection between the one or more electronic devices and thephotodetector in each active pixel.
 7. The device of claim 1, whereinthe patterned metal layer has a pattern that matches a layout of theoptoelectronic structures of the array of optoelectronic devices.
 8. Thedevice of claim 1, wherein each optoelectronic structure is disposed ona respective contact stripe of the set of contact stripes.
 9. The deviceof claim 1, further comprising a further set of further contact stripesrunning as interconnects between adjacent optoelectronic devices in thearray, wherein: the further set of further contact stripes are orientedperpendicularly to the set of contact stripes; and each further contactstripe of the further set of contact stripes is disposed on respectiveoptoelectronic structures of the array of optoelectronic devices. 10.The device of claim 9, wherein each further contact stripes of thefurther set of further contact stripes follows a contour of theinorganic semiconductor stacks of respective optoelectronic structuresof the array of optoelectronic devices.
 11. The device of claim 9,wherein a profile of each further contact stripe of the further set offurther contact stripes has rounded corners as the further contactstripe follows the contour of the inorganic semiconductor stacks, therounded corners acting as stress-absorbing springs.
 12. The device ofclaim 9, wherein each further contact stripe of the further set offurther contact stripes is a flat, strip-shaped layer.
 13. The device ofclaim 1, further comprising a further set of further contact stripesrunning as interconnects between adjacent optoelectronic devices in thearray, wherein: the further set of further contact stripes are orientedperpendicularly to the set of contact stripes; and each optoelectronicstructure has a layout such that a respective further contact stripe ofthe further set of further contact stripes is disposed along a lateralside of the inorganic semiconductor stack.
 14. The device of claim 1,wherein the patterned metal layer comprises a plurality of metalstructures of varying thicknesses.
 15. The device of claim 1, wherein arespective contact stripe of the set of contact stripes comprises acurved strain relief section between adjacent optoelectronic devices ofthe array of optoelectronic devices.
 16. The device of claim 15, whereinthe curved strain relief section comprises an arch.
 17. A devicecomprising: a three-dimensionally curved substrate; a patterned metallayer disposed on the curved substrate; an array of optoelectronicdevices, each optoelectronic device comprising an optoelectronicstructure supported by the curved substrate, wherein each optoelectronicstructure comprises an inorganic semiconductor stack; and a set ofcontact stripes extending across the curved substrate, eachoptoelectronic structure being coupled to a respective contact stripe ofthe set of contact stripes; wherein the patterned metal layer is indirect, physical contact with, and configured for adhesion to, thecurved substrate; wherein the patterned metal layer is a strike layer ofa bond between the patterned metal layer and the set of contact stripes;wherein the array of optoelectronic devices is secured to the curvedsubstrate via the bond between the patterned metal layer and the set ofcontact stripes; wherein: the patterned metal layer comprises aplurality of islands; and each contact stripe of the set of contactstripes extends across, and is contact with, multiple islands of theplurality of islands.
 18. A device comprising: a three-dimensionallycurved substrate; a patterned metal layer disposed on the curvedsubstrate; an array of optoelectronic devices, each optoelectronicdevice comprising an optoelectronic structure supported by the curvedsubstrate, wherein each optoelectronic structure comprises an inorganicsemiconductor stack; and a set of contact stripes extending across thecurved substrate, each optoelectronic structure being coupled to arespective contact stripe of the set of contact stripes; an adhesionreduction layer disposed between the three-dimensionally curvedsubstrate and the patterned metal layer to allow greater shear slip;wherein the array of optoelectronic devices is secured to the curvedsubstrate via a bond between the patterned metal layer and the set ofcontact stripes; and wherein the patterned metal layer and the set ofcontact stripes have different patterning.
 19. The device of claim 18,wherein the adhesion reduction layer comprises a fluorocarbon material.